Changes in Macbeths character Essay Example For Students

Changes in Macbeths character Essay William Shakespeare, an incredibly famous English author, composed a play which stood out forever Macbeth. This was the remainder of his four catastrophes and was written in the mid 1600s. It was composed for James I and was first acted in 1606. The emphasis is on the mental impact of the violations he submits upon Macbeth and the idea of his relationship with his better half. Macbeth recounts to the tale of a man who acts, asked by his better half and anticipated by witches, submitting regicide so as to pick up power. It is William Shakespeares generally amazing and sincerely extraordinary play, and has greatly affected its crowds consistently. During the play we see Macbeth, a legend that battles for his lord and nation move toward a perilous man, driven by abhorrent. Shakespeare utilizes Macbeth to show the horrible impacts that aspiration and blame can have on a man and how they can drive him to devastate himself, anyway regardless of being the unfortunate legend and in this way accountable for his own fate, we feel that Macbeth isn't totally to fault for his own destiny the ruin of Macbeth is additionally the consequence of the activities by everyone around him in having the option to abuse his defective character. The play places Macbeth immovably in the center of a wild fight that is being battled among Scotland and Scottish tricksters and afterward among Scotland and Norway. Our early introduction of Macbeth is that he is a daring saint and that he could never diminish himself to such a low standard of malicious as those he is battling. Macbeths dependability and courage is underscored when he is depicted as being one of two spent swimmers that do stick together and stifle their craft this likeness followed by an ellipsis is considerably more viable than a realistic portrayal. It gives the feeling that the two armed forces are in a condition of fatigue, as two swimmers would be in the wake of having swum until they can't swim any longer. Both sticking onto each other and pulling each other down, risking crushing one another and making an opportunity of complete, benevolent, all out annihilation. The position that Macbeth is in during the fight is that the situation is anything but favorable for him when his adversary MacDonwald is depicted as having the increasing villainies of nature warm upon him. This can give two impressions, one of which is that he is drawing all underhandedness towards him wishing to pulverize the normal request and the other being that he himself has all the qualities and properties of fiendishness and he is the exemplification of all that is terrible. It is practically prophetically calamitous, great and shrewdness battling until the very end and abhorrence right now with the preferred position, clarifying the courage of Macbeth as he keeps on battling despite the fact that the situation is anything but favorable for him. In any event, something as famously whimsical as karma appears to have produced a faithfulness with underhanded. What's more, Fortune, on his cursed squabble grinning, Showed like a dissidents prostitute; however alls unreasonably powerless: For daring Macbeth The tables have now turned, great and insidiousness are so uniformly coordinated it is presently workable for either side to triumph, yet Macbeth is resolved. Fortune isn't preferring the bold; Macdonwald needs all the karma he can get now in fight, with Macbeth being as solid and brave as he seems to be. Karma is embodied as a whore; it has no devotion and can abandon one individual and move onto the following. A whore or karma will consistently go where it will most succeed. It seems like there are two inquiries that could be related with this statement, Is Fortune blessing his resistance as his caring prostitute however part of the alls too frail to even think about denying Macbeth his shocking triumph? , or does Fortune relinquish Macdonwald like a whimsical prostitute when Macbeth shows up? In any case, karma is of no utilization as Macdonwald and his military arent sufficient and are no counterpart for Macbeth. At the point when Macbeth is alluded to as fearless, it shows that he is speaking to the exemplification of good he is a pioneer that had the ability to change the fortune of the fight practically independent with the assistance of his waved steel, which smoked with bleeding execution, similar to valours follower cut out his entry till he confronted the slave; Macbeths gallantry increments further. He is being adulated by the sergeant indicating that society esteems grit and boldness. His blade is smoking with grisly execution since he is in the main part of the fight, moving at such high a pace and executing such a significant number of adversaries as he moves, his blade is hot with smoking blood and hasnt had the opportunity to cool. Shakespeares utilization of the word cut accentuates Macbeths quality and fierceness, likewise the utilization of valours meaning boldness shows that as Macbeth is hacking down all men that impede him, hes battling for a reason. Macbeth keeps on executing men fighting until he faces Macdonwald, Till he confronted the slave this will at that point be a definitive test, great against malevolent and just one will win. It is contrasting Macdonwald with a slave, notwithstanding Macbeths power he is simply this. There was no presentation and no inviting; this last gathering was uniquely to leave one survivor. In the long run Macbeths assurance, quality and fearlessness radiate through as Macdonwald is crushed and the Thane of Glamis is triumphant and demonstrated effective in fight when he un-seamed him from the nave to the cleaves, and fixed his head upon our fortification cutting him up the center, representing complete annihilation, the end for malicious. In spite of the fact that its simply the start for Macbeth and the others, who speak to all that is acceptable. This demonstration that Macbeth submits decisively shows the beginning of his spirit being adulterated by malicious. Woman Macbeth has convinced Macbeth to kill Duncan after he was predicted by witches that he would become lord, it was then quickly thought by Lady Macbeth that for this to become reality, Duncans rule needs to reach a conclusion. As the day of the deed approaches Macbeth starts to question whether he ought to submit this demonstration of injustice, he is conflicted between two different ways on the off chance that it were done, when tis done, at that point twere well it were done rapidly; if thassassination could encumber up the result These words expressed by Macbeth show that he is confounded and far fetched, Shakespeare has utilized code word to accentuate this. A case of code word can be found in this statement; Macbeth alludes to the demonstration of homicide as it on various events, giving the feeling that he is attempting to keep away from what he is really examining on doing, not once does he really utilize the word murder. It seems as if there is a genuine purpose behind executing Duncan, yet the main explanation is Macbeths own eagerness and want for power. The utilization of restrictive words, for example, in the event that when, at that point and could and the utilization of midline delays and caesuras recommend dithering and presents the component of vulnerability. The Torah, Talmud and Kabbalah EssayThe last interruption after deadly vision accentuates the accompanying sentence, giving it high significance when Macbeth questions his sight from the start when he says reasonable to feeling as to locate, this nearly proposes he doesnt trust it is genuine, as if he can see it yet can't contact it, this underscored the disarray. You are given the feeling that Macbeth is awkward with the utilization of the words knife of the brain, these words give the feeling that his psyche is considering murder, not of his significant other or his future just considerations of homicide, he has become a perilous soul. From here on Shakespeares utilization of language changes, starting now and into the foreseeable future nothing has the force or capacity to stop Macbeth , this is communicated when it is the grisly business which educates along these lines to mine eyes. Presently oer the one half world nature appears to be dead, and underhanded dreams misuse the curtained rest; presently black magic commends this gives the feeling that Macbeth was already in a terrified state, despite the fact that this has now vanished and he is determined to finishing the job needing to be done, with the impact of Lady Macbeth. It is proposed that the better piece of the world is found in the light and when obscurity falls, it is then that all underhanded is discharged. Evening time and the dull are emblematic to underhanded, nearly just as now is the ideal time for the homicide to occur while it is dim and the light (goodness) can't be seen. At the point when Shakespeare utilizes the term the curtained rest he is nearly recommending that when the sun goes down and we close the draperies, we have no clue about what puzzling fiendishness could be prowling in the dimness. With Tarquins bewitching steps, towards his plan Moves like a phantom. Thou sure and firm set earth, Hear not my means, what direction they stroll, for dread Macbeth needs to move quietly or he might be gotten, just as he is on the combat zone prepared and pausing. Theres a proposal that he doesnt need the earth to hear him as it is firm and he isn't. Anything that is firm, unadulterated and great has now become a danger to Macbeth. Proposing that insidious is never observed until its prepared to assault. Shakespeare has utilized the words towards his structure there is perhaps a two sided connotation to this, it could mean either that the earth was made and ought to be fixed by god, nearly just as Macbeth is putting the fault of his activities onto god. It could likewise imply that divine beings configuration is that there are underhanded individuals and they shouldnt be halted, they should keep on killing, cheat and take and permit nature to follow through to its logical end. Shakespeare has made the language to turn out to be marginally smooth sensational now, as though after he carries out the wrongdoing and Duncan is reported dead, Macbeth will turn into a ground-breaking and bold saint, somewhat unexpected as this is the thing that he was regardless before the impact of insatiability, aspiration and others disrupted everything. Macbeth demonstrates further to the crowd how degenerate his psyche is as he proceeds with the discourse. He tells the crowd how he intends to execute Duncan as well as he means to too it quietly and prudently. By cleverly intending to crawl upon Duncan he intends to do it as most malice violations are submitted, secretive, phantom like and without the obvious earth parting with his arrangements. Af

Copernicus Essays - Copernican Revolution, Copernican Heliocentrism

Copernicus Nicolas Copernicus Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543 Material science February 8, 2000 Nicolas Copernicus Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543 Copernicus was conceived in Poland in 1473, he began his instruction at Cracow University. There he considered science and optics. From here he went to Italy, where he was selected as an ordinance in the church building of Frauenburg, where he consumed an agreeable scholarly time on earth studding. Copernicus had some little leisure activities while at the basilica, he painted, and often made an interpretation of Greek verse into Latin. One other side interest that simply wasn't sufficiently little to be known as a pastime to the greater part of us was cosmology. He made examinations discreetly and alone, with no assistance. He saw from a turret on a defensive divider around a house of prayer, he likewise looked with his unaided eye as opposed to with a telescope. He was one of the organizers of present day stargazing. Copernicus kicked the bucket in 1543 of a cerebral discharge. In 1530 just before Copernicus passed on he figured out how to distributed his work, De Revolutionibus. Which said that the earth turned on its pivot once every day and went around the sun once yearly. This may no stable exceptionally questionable yet as of now the congregation and its adherents had faith in the Ptolemiac hypothesis, which expressed that the universe was a shut space limited by a circular envelope past which there was nothing. (Landry 1999) Copernicus' works conflicted with the congregation, and most logical convictions. This might be one motivation behind why Copernicus didn't distribute his work until his deathbed. Another explanation might be that Copernicus was an enormous fussbudget, and constantly revamp his works again and again to get them right. (Field 1995) So you can perceive any reason why Copernicus wasn't in any enormous race to have the world think about his hypothesis. On one hand he would cause a Nicolas Copernicus tramoundous mix in the congregation, and all established researchers. He would've probably have been terminated from the agreeable church position he had for a long time, and could?ve given him an awful name. On the off chance that it hadn't been for George Rheticus, a 25-year-old German science educator Copernicus' strength have never publiched his work. (Field 1995) Rheticus remained with Copernicus for a long time, and persuaded him to discharge his work. ?His work the Copernicus' heliostatic cosmology included giving a few unmistakable movements to the Earth. It was thus viewed as impossible by far most of his counterparts, and by most stargazers and characteristic logicians of succeeding ages before the center of the seventeenth century. Its solitary protectors included Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Solid hypothetical supporting for the Copernican hypothesis was given by Newton's hypothesis of general attractive energy (1687).? (Field 1995) So Copernicus' entire contention expressed that the planets and the Earth were in circle around the sun, and the moon was in circle around the Earth. This is known as the The Heliocentric System: Nicolas Copernicus All in all Copernicus said that the Sun was the focal point of the universe, and conflicted with all known information, religion, and lessons. He took every one of his perceptions with the unaided eye and with no assistance. Many ignored his book and his hypothesis, which conflicted with everything that the congregation had faith in. Be that as it may if not for Copernicus, present day cosmology would have never made advances the extent that it needs to today. Copernicus' difficult work and quality is the reason he is one of the most significant authors of present day stargazing. List of sources Field, J. V. (1995 August). Landing page. [Online]. [2000, Feb. 8]. Space science 161 ?The Solar System? . [Online]. College of Florida. [2000, Feb. 8]. Landry, Peter (1999 June). Landing page. [Online]. Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. CANADA. [2000, Feb. 8].

Hello, Layover (Part Two)

Hello, Layover (Part Two) Due to an Act of God, I am in the shiny new JetBlue terminal at JFK for the next three hours. An Act of God, in this case, refers to one hell of a lightning storm in Fort Lauderdale, closing the runway for an extended period of time, causing my 6 AM flight to leave an hour late, and leading me to miss my connection to Chicago OHare by approximately two seconds. My luck in airports is notoriously crappy. To celebrate, I went to pee Id been holding it during an all-out sprint across the terminal to, you know, not miss that connecting flight that I missed. This post has nothing to do with the above. I have been spending too much time on the 2013 Facebook group, which I knew would happen. (Ill leave you all alone soon, I promise Ive had nothing to do for the last two weeks, but that ends today when I start training for teachin the kids IF I EVER GET TO CHICAGO RAWR RAWR RAWR.) Theres a discussion topic called Advice for Freshman, which is notable because of two things: The title is grammatically incorrect. I know that as the queen of run-on sentences, Im not one to talk, but there are only about three things in the world that bother me more than when people mix up freshman and freshmen. I always want to throw a heavy glass object every time I see it, which is often. Freshman is not plural, guys. I repeat, FRESHMAN IS NOT PLURAL. It contains approximately eleventy million bits of advice from upperclassmen, many of which directly contradict each other. The latter point and everything related to it may confuse the living daylights out of you, but its really not a problem, which Ill explain in a second. By now, youve heard that you should take 7.013 in the spring when the class is larger, unless you want to take 7.012 with the great and all-powerful Eric Lander, unless you want to take 7.014 because youre a huge fan of ecology and think that genetics can suck it, unless you want to pretend that biology doesnt exist for a semester or seven and take it in your last term at MIT. And now youre confused and dont know whos right and whether or not youll make the right decision, because if you take the wrong biology class, you wont pass, you wont graduate, you wont get a job, no woman will ever love you, and youll find yourself living in a cardboard box underneath the Longfellow Bridge. And lets not even talk about 8.02, because physics is made of evil and you definitely wont pass that as a freshman. .Oh, Im sorry. Was that all a huge lie? I really should quit with the sarcasm over the Internets. It clogs the tubes and the point doesnt always get across. By the way, all of the Introductory Biology classes cover genetics. You wont get out of it just by taking 7.014. Sure, upperclassmen all over the place have been telling you that the classes are difficult. Sure, we all advise you to do different things, making it hard for you to decide which path to take. The good thing about having us around is that it informs you of the options you have, at which point you can decide whats best for you. I know youre all getting a ton of stuff thrown at you now that youll have to deal with in two months, but its not as terrifying and life-altering as it seems. (Am I repeating myself? Oh hey, I totally am! Im making an important point here!) Or, to quote my post in the discussion yesterday: The only reason we all keep saying that MIT is hard is because it is. We know that many of you are coming in here after years of being told that you were the smartest, most amazing kid ever ever ever, and that a lot of what youve done so far may have come easily. Weve been there, and we know its a bit of a shock when you fail your first test and you cant answer half the questions on your first pset. All were trying to say is that youre not alone there are three thousand(ish) upperclassmen who have been in exactly the same position, and there are a thousand other people in your class who are experiencing the same thing that you are. As long as you realize that you dont have to (and shouldnt!) do everything alone and that youre in a collaborative rather than a competitive environment, you should be okay. Thats all. Im getting off my soapbox and Im going to stop yelling. My voice is getting hoarse, and everyone in the terminal around me is wondering what in blazes Im shouting about.

The Ethics Of The Accounting Profession - 1210 Words

Ethics are a decision one makes in knowing the right thing to do and essentially doing the right thing. They are the rules of behavior based on one’s belief of what is morally good and bad. A person may hear the word ethics and immediately think of government or the law. Not only does ethics have a role in government, it also plays a major role in business, including accounting. Schroeder, Clark Cathey (624) states that the â€Å"reason for a high level of ethical conduct is the need for public confidence in the quality of services provided by the profession.† Ethical conduct not only encourages a high standard of performance; it also encourages a high quality of professional service. Enron’s financial scandal put a huge damper on that confidence. The Enron scandal made the public aware and conscientious of what could happen when dealing with unethical individuals. Since then, the public has educated themselves and are continually becoming more informed. Ethic s in the accounting profession is not going away, it will only continue to change as business transaction change and become more complex. Although some behaviors are legal they may not be held as ethical. For example, Henry Blodgett, an analyst for Merrill Lynch, publicly recommend certain technology stocks, although he knew they were a sham (Smith, 2012). His recommendation of these stocks was unethical, but completely legal. One difference between the court system and judging ethical standards is the court systemShow MoreRelatedThe Ethics Of The Accounting Profession1204 Words   |  5 PagesEthics is a decision one makes in knowing the right thing to do and actually doing the right thing. They are the rules of behavior based on one’s belief of what is morally good and bad. A person may hear the word ethics and immediately think of government or the law. Not only does ethics have a role in government, it also plays a major role in business, including accounting. 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According to New Zealand Institute of Chartered Accountants Act 1996 the five fundamental principles in the Code of Ethics are integrity, objectivity, professionalRead MoreWhy Are Ethics Important in the Accounting Profession? Essay1459 Words   |  6 PagesWhy Are Ethics Important In The Accounting Profession? Sheree Fletcher CE CAPSTONE COURSE FOR THE ASSOCIATES DEGREE IDS399 September 10, 2006 What does ethics have to do with accounting? Everything, since there have been some recent financial accounting scandals; a few examples being Xerox, WorldCom, Enron, which have generated much unwanted and unfavorable publicity for CPAs, including those working as controllers or chief financial officers for organizations. When you hear theRead MoreWhy Are Ethics Important In The Accounting Profession Essay1396 Words   |  6 PagesWhy Are Ethics Important In The Accounting Profession? What does ethics have to do with accounting? Everything, since there have been some recent financial accounting scandals; a few examples being Xerox, WorldCom, Enron, which have generated much unwanted and unfavorable publicity for CPAs, including those working as controllers or chief financial officers for organizations. When you hear the word ethics, what is the first thing that comes to mind? Having to make the decision of doing whatRead MoreEthical Issues Faced by the Accountancy Profession Essay1747 Words   |  7 PagesEthics plays an essential and integral part in the accountancy profession. Professional conduct plays an important role in establishing public trust in financial reporting and business practise. Yet this can and has come under threat when clients and employees are exposed to the risk of fraud when accounting ethics are not adhered to. Codes of ethics are adopted to ensure the reliability, comparability and integrity of financial statements. Ethical standards exist to safeguard the fundamental principlesRead MoreEssay on The Ethical Values Held in Accounting, A Literature Rewiew1426 Words   |  6 PagesEvery profession faces a multiple of ethical challenges on a daily bases, this can be clearly witnessed in the accounting profession. The main focus of this literature review is to discuss the ethical values held in this profession and to also explore the ethical challenges that they face. Professional ethics for accountants is all about making sure that accountants carry out their duties to the highest standard possible and in a very professional manner. A code of ethics is designed to make sureRead MoreFinancial Accounting819 Words   |  4 PagesQUESTION BTN 1-3 Identify the parties potentially affected by this audit and the fee plan proposed Accounting code of ethics guides those in the profession to behave in a respectful, controlled and moral way. Clients need to have confidence in the business practices of professional accounting firms. A clear ethical code ensures that accountants practice a high standard of business that is exceptional in integrity and professionalism (Maughan, 2011). According to Schreiber (2003)Read MoreA Study On Malaysian Institute Of Accountants1416 Words   |  6 Pagesof Accountants website offers viewing of the code of ethics for practicing accountants (2010). As per the website and information therein, The Malaysian Institute of Accountants set up the Ethics Standard Board in June 2009 in order to supplement the Malaysian Government’s push to promote greater integrity and ethics. The vision of the Ethics Standard Board is to adopt high quality professional and ethical standards for the accountancy profession. Their mission is to promote good ethical practices

Safety And School Climate ( Tiered System Of Supports ;...

4.) Safety and School Climate (Tiered System of Supports; Differentiated Instruction; Physical Environment; Physical Well-being; Social/Emotional Health; Family and Community Engagement) School Climate: Educators have increasingly recognized the crucial role that school climate plays in building effective learning environments. In the United States and around the world, there is a growing investment in school climate reform as a data-driven improvement strategy for K-12 schools. The National School Climate Council (2007) describes the culture of a positive school climate in the following ways: â€Å"A sustainable, positive school climate fosters youth development and learning necessary for a productive, contributive, and satisfying life in a democratic society. This climate includes norms, values, and expectations that support people feeling socially, emotionally and physically safe. People are engaged and respected. Students, families and educators work together to develop, live, and contribute to a shared school vision. Educators model and nurture an attitude that emphasizes the benefits of, and satisfaction from, learning. Each person contributes to the operations of the school as well as the care of the physical environment. (p. 4)† The effects of such a culture are well-supported, with research demonstrating that a positive school climate can have a strong influence on the motivation to learn (Eccles et al., 1993), reduces the impact of socioeconomic status on schoolShow MoreRelatedStrategies for Promoting Positive Behaviour According with the Policies and Procedures of the Setting17778 Words   |  72 PagesCHILDREN AND PEOPLE’S POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR When managing pupil’s behavior, all staff will need to be aware of school policies. The majority of children/young people do not present challenging behavior, and they attend a range of educational settings in environments which are conducive to learning appropriate behaviors. It is essential to ensure that behavior which does not meet school/setting’s expectations, is responded to through management strategies that do not rely upon any form of physicalRead MoreIntroduction of Bancassurance9292 Words   |  38 Pagesconstitute a significant source of profits for banks. The latter partly being because banks can often sell insurance at better prices (i.e., higher premiums) than many other channels, and they have low costs as they use the infrastructure (branches and systems) that they use for banking. What has not happened to any great extent, at least in Britain, is the merger of banks and insurers to form integrated Bancassurance companies. Bancassurance covers a wide range of detailed arrangements between banks andRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 Pagesrights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior written permission of the publisher. This McGraw−Hill Primis text may include materials submitted to McGraw−Hill for publication by the instructor of this course. The instructor is solely responsible for the editorial content of suchRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesCosts 6.4 Activity duration estimates (.3) 6.4.2 Estimating tools (.1.3.4) 6.3.1 Identifying resources 7.1 Activity cost estimates (.2.3.4.5) 5.1.2.4 Delphi method Chapter 6 10.5.3 Cost/schedule system (.1) 6.6 .2.1 Time performance 7.2.3.1 Cost baseline development 7.3.2.1 Earned value system (F.4) 7.3.2.4 E.V., performance status report 7.3.2.2 E.V., forecasts 7.3.2.3 EV., to complete index (EAC) 7.3.2.5 Schedule and cost variance Developing a Project Plan 4.2.2 Planning tools 6.2 SequenceRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesdedicated to the authors’ wives – Gillian and Rosie – and to Ben Gilligan for their support while it was being written. Acknowledgements Our thanks go to Janice Nunn for all the effort that she put in to the preparation of the manuscript. Strategic Marketing Management Planning, implementation and control Third edition Richard M.S. Wilson Emeritus Professor of Business Administration The Business School Loughborough University and Colin Gilligan Professor of Marketing Sheffield HallamRead MoreGsk Annual Report 2010135604 Words   |  543 Pagesmalaria vaccine with phase III trials ongoing in 7 African countries. 300 million Commitment to supply 300m doses of Synï ¬â€šorix at a reduced price to developing countries over the next decade through the AMC ï ¬ nancing mechanism. 5-year commitment To treat school age children in Africa at risk of intestinal worms. Leader GSK ranked ï ¬ rst in both Access to Medicine Indexes in 2008 and 2010. 2050 Target date for value chain, from raw materials to product disposal, to be carbon neutral. Shareholder information

The Fashion of Warriors Free Essays

Memoirs off Secret Empire . Samurai I PBS Search Support for PBS. Org provided by: What’s this? Sam aura warriors me urged as an elite force in Japan’s prop inches during the early 1 20th century . We will write a custom essay sample on The Fashion of Warriors or any similar topic only for you Order Now Recruited by local chieftains, these fighting forces were m maintained long enough to wage a specific war, after which the soldiers would return to their lands to till the soil. With Japan’s me proper live ins in the ancient capital of Ky tot and unable to m maintain control of the prop inches, the Sam aura clans established them sell sees as v table political entities. By the late 1 2 the century , Sam aura lords ruled both the prop inches and central Japan. They m maintained their influence until the m id-1 87 g’s when the Sam aura class was outlawed and their privy ledge status was dissolve deed. Samurai warriors were at the top of the social order CASTE POSITION The Sam aura class, â€Å"shim in,† form deed Japan’s top elite, and were the only caste granted the privy liege of wearing two swords and have ins two name sees?a fame ill and a first name e. The shoguns and Adam y o lords were m me beers of the shim in caste. THEN NOW Modern Japan still m maintains a culture based on the incepts of 1/3 The rigorous training of a Sam aura warrior began in childhood. Sam aura school was a unique com abomination of pay sisal training, Chinese studies, poetry and spiritual discipline. The y nouns warriors studied Keno (â€Å"the Way of the Sword†), the m oral code of the Sam aura, and Zen www. PBS. Org/empires/Japan/entered_8. HTML Buddhism . Sam aura were expected to live e according to Bushier (â€Å"The Way of the Warrior†), a strict ethical code influenced by Confucianism that stressed LOL alt to one’s m aster, respect for one’s superior, ethical behave ROR in all aspects of life and mom plate self-discipline. Girls also receive deed m arterial arts training. Although m cost Sam aura whom en did not fight on the battlefield, they were prepared to defend their homo sees against NV adders. The Sam aura attached great IM portable to the circus stances of their own death. If a Sam aura died of his own accord, it was considered a v Lillian end. Rather than suffer defeat or hum location at the hands of an enema y , Sam aura warriors often chose ritual suicide (speedup). After Outgas lye ass united Japan, Sam aura m litany serve ices were rarely needed. Though they continued to train daily , Sam aura gradually transform deed from warriors to bureaucrats. As townspeople acquired new wealth, the Sam aura, barred from engaging in com m race, found them sell sees in dire circus stances. For m any Sam aura, peace led to despair. Nor and sham e, funded mental to the Sam aura code. Sam aura warriors took great care sty ling their hair, which they pulled back into a topknot called a â€Å"chomp age. † For battle, Sam aura warriors shave deed the tops of their heads, which reduced the heat under their heave y helm test, and ore their hair straight on the sides. When not wearing helm test, they pulled the side and back hair into a topknot. A Sam Uri’ s clothing sty el was v ere IM portent and indicative e of status. Outlandish, colorful patterns were considered IM m oddest and conceited. Though Sam aura children dressed flam boy antsy , they became e m ore subdued in appearance after their com ins-of-age Ceres non . The Sam Uri’s eve ere day wear was a Kim non, usually consisting of an outer and inner lay ere. Norm ally m add of silk, the quality of the Kim non depended on the Sam Uri’s income e and status. Beneath the Kim non, the warrior wore a loincloth. The Sam Uri’s swords were norm ally thrust through an â€Å"Obi,† a belt wrapped around the waist, and were always s worn on the left side. How to cite The Fashion of Warriors, Essays

Mainframe computer free essay sample

Hardware and Software Components BUS 210 July 8, 2011 Brian Wirpsa Axia College Material Appendix E Hardware/Software Components In your own words, describe the following hardware/software components Legacy systems| The legacy systems are the IT system as a whole for a company. The legacy system is computers, hardware, and software needed to run an IT system. | Mainframe computers| Mainframe computers were the hub of a company’s IT system information. They were large, used mostly for number crunching, and only accessible by company managers. Later, although they remained expensive minicomputers were made that were used for word processing, and more readily available for other function departments to use. | Microprocessors| Microprocessors are the software components that help to make the personal computer possible. Microprocessors are essentially the brains inside of a pc. | PCs| PC’s or personal computers are much smaller than mainframe computers and made for individual use. They were computers that use software that any individual can use and within a business held a connection to the company’s mainframe. We will write a custom essay sample on Mainframe computer or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Network computers| Network computers act as the middleman in the communication between the pc and a company’s mainframe. This group of pc’s connection to the mainframe server called a â€Å"land area network† acts as a landline for the network of computers located in the same building. | World Wide Web and Internet| The world wide web is a connection worldwide to any and every computer in the world. The world wide web allowed information to be transferred to and from anywhere in the world via the internet. With wires, cables, Ethernet wires, and routers is how The internet was able to transfer information. | Wired and wireless broadband technology| Wired broadband technology is the use of the internet through wires that transmit data at a slow speed. Like a tunnel, wired internet technology must move slowly through the small space provided by the wiring. Wireless technology uses no wiring, therefore that tunnel is now wide open with more space and room for data to transfer at a higher rate of speed. PC software PC software is the brains that operate the computer. PC software is what is used to connect all functions of a computer together to work such as the hardware components and the software itself. | Networking software| Networking software is the second brain for a computer that allows it to connect to a company’s servers and company pc’s. | Computer security software | Computer security software is the protective shield or skull for a computer that prevents outsiders from entering a computer system and taking vital information.

Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay Example

Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay Example Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay A vegetation analysis has been performed at four sites on Wimbledon Common SW19 London, to assess the suitability of quantitative methods for determining human impact on the succession climax. Systematic stratified sampling based on the method of Querouille (1949) has been used Based on 25 sample points per site. A test of Yodas law; C=W? -3/2 has been performed on tree stands, where ? = density of a stand, C= dry weight of matter and w is a constant, by using a correlation test. Log (combined diameters) as the dependent variable (y) and log (distance between pairs) as the independent (x) variable. Three out of four sites gave high values of r, indicating that Yodas law may operate on the sample sites. This is thought to reflect human management of the common over 200 years as well as the mechanism of self-thinning. Using the point quadrat method (Curtis 1949) estimates of density d were obtained as: d= 1 / l 2 where l = ? li / n , where n = sample no and l i the determined lengths from the sample points. This showed discrimination between open and closed sites. A frequency analysis was carried out on this data to find the relative dominance of species X as: Relative dominance of species x= sum of circumferences for that species/ sum of circumferences for all species. Following the procedures of Clark and Evans (1954) these density estimates were tested for normality or a random distribution using the statistic: C=(rn- E(rn))/ (?/?N,) rn and E(rn ) the mean and expectation of the lengths of up to three nearest neighbours. Further following the procedure of Thomson (1956) using a chi squared distribution a further test of randomness was performed on nth nearest neighbours. Basal cover at 36 quadrats was estimated using a tenths scale. Finally a trampling index is proposed that assesses human impact. This has shown discrimination between open and closed sites. However in terms of overall trampling damage little serious impact has been seen outside of the established paths. A conclusion is drawn that both Conservationists and ecologists will be able to use the density measurements and the techniques more generally when planning management schemes for the common as well as the vegetation data and trampling scale to readily assess the impact visitors are having on certain areas of the common. Introduction. Wimbledon Common situated in southwest London is an extensive area of open land subject to multiple recreational use. For example there is a golf course, horse riding designated paths, cycle paths and numerous footpaths, some designated some not. Conservators are appointed to resolve issues of conflict demand use and to take decisions regarding conservation. In the absence of human interference this area would reach climax vegetation. Exactly what this would be depends upon a number of factors. The vegetation could vary on a local scale depending on the closeness to standing water, drainage qualities of the soil as well as the climate overall. The deciduous oak/beech forest is typical of southern England. Diagram 1 shows the proposed stages in this climax that could be appropriate to this area. It is important to realise that the vegetation pattern is never a static phenomenon unchanging once established but a highly dynamic one. Individual trees for example inevitably die or fall; leaving an opportunity gap in the light space that has opened up for other species to establish. This implies a pattern of a mosaic of patches might be become established caused by catastrophes, storms epidemics and diseases and so on. Some species actually inhibit their own re-creation at least initially. Their young saplings do not succeed paving the way for others. Beech is a case in point, thus replacement will be of ash, oak, or birch, but later these trees let the beeches back in. We can conclude that patches of oak, ash or birch are an integral part of the beechwood community. A.S.Watt in a study of beech-woods and found that when they are 60-80 years old the field layer can support wood sorrel but after another 10-20 years these are succeeded by brambles. The field layer may be very sparse with some species of tree for example Beech, dogs mercury, wood sorrell, wood barley grass and wood sanicle have been recorded as common, however if yews are present then not even these plants can gain a foothold. Oak (Quercus robor) has associated on the filed layer dogs mercury, wood sanicle and bluebells. As some areas on Wimbledon Common are left by the conservators to reach their natural climax whereas others are heavily trampled by humans, the opportunity exists to evaluate methods that quantify and qualify the scale of human interference. In this study a dual focus will be attempted. Firstly a look at the trees in their stands1 from the viewpoint of density2, and secondly to look at the ground cover3and assess both qualitatively and quantitatively human impact. Theory. A logical starting point is Yodas self-thinning law. (1963). In this study applied to trees. A derivation of this is given in the appendix. Yoda postulated that that the smallest individuals in a population are the first to die, leaving the larger individuals to gain weight. The law proposed was W= C ? -3/2 , or; in log form log W= log C- 1.5 log ? Where w = dry weight of surviving plants, ? = density of surviving plants C = a constant related to growth class of particular species being studied. The power 3/2 could vary between species as could the constant C. In some 80 species studies the range of C has been found to lie: 3.5 ;= C;= 4.3. A 3/2 power law implies that a change of three log units in mean plant weight corresponds to a change of only 2 log units in mean plant density. Although plants in a dense population become larger with age and as the population decreases due to mortality the law implies that the total plant weight will increase because mean plant weight is increasing faster than density is falling. This phenomenon is known as self-thinning. Incidentally there is enormous biological significance in this. For Farmers three are density limits in which young seedlings of a given species can survive. There are also implications in the filed of conservation of rare species where safe sites need to be found, for the planting of the seeds. One of the Hypotheses under test is that there is a positive direct relationship between the size of each pair of nearest neighbours and their distance apart. In particular self-thinning as opposed to mans imposition of pattern would be expected to comply with Yodas -3/2-power law. Larger individuals benefit from the death of smaller ones. Where regeneration takes place in a woodland gap a large number of seedlings immediately take advantage of the extra light but self-thinning operates during their growth to provide only one mature tree to fill the gap. The successful tree then suppresses new seedling growth. For the analysis of tree stands the method of plotless sampling has been chosen. This method is considered appropriate to forests where there are practical difficulties in delimiting the relatively large quadrats necessary for sampling trees. From the varied procedures mentioned in the literature given for completeness in appendix 2. Three have been chosen and suitably modified to suit the present project. By recording a minimum set of data it is possible to use any of the three methods. 1. Intraspecific and Interspecific crowding. Involves plotting the relationship between the log o combined diameters of each tree and that of its nearest neighbour against the log of the distance between them. This can be done for (i) all pairs of the same species (ii) all pairs of mixed species (iii) Combined data. A correlation coefficient is calculated where x represents the log of combined diameter and y the log of the distance of the nearest neighbours. Point Centred Quadrat method. A Point is established at random in the study area. Four quadrats around the point are marked. The distances from the point to the nearest tree in each quadrant are measured. Simultaneously through symbols such as triangles and squares the species type could be noted. p p could represent silver birch could represent oak could represent beech. p p The density of all trees in the study area is readily estimated as he average of all n length measurements. l = ? li /n. The overall tree density D= 1/ l 2 The frequency of each tree species encountered is obtained as a proportion of the total number of distance measurements made. fj = n j /n j= 1,2s, s is the total number of species, n j is the number of recorded distances to species j. From this the Density of species j: D j =f j D Adding to the data- sheet a record of the circumference of the tree at breast height (approx. 1.5m) we can use the following definitions in the project: Relative Dominance of Species X = Sum of circumferences for all species X /(sum of circumferences for all species) * 100 Relative frequency of species X = frequency of species X */ 100 (Sum of frequency values of all species) Relative density of species X = density of species X/(total density of all species) *100 Nearest neighbour methods. Morsita (1957) has suggested a type 3 estimator ( involving third nearest neighbours and above) applicable to certain type of non-random distribution. This might prove useful in our situation where Wimbledon Common is managed to a great extent in terms of tree density and so on. The distance r to the nth nearest neighbour n;= 3 in each of k sectors at N points is measured. In view of the greater number of sampling points required, a simpler scheme needs to be found here. D1 = 1/pi (n-1)/N ( 1/r) The distance from one tree to its three nearest neighbours will be obtained, and following a procedure of Clark and Evans (1954) test will be conducted on the randomness or otherwise of the distribution of distances. The estimate for density m0 will come from the point quadrat method. Choice of Sampling Procedure and Quadrats. Cochran in 1963 pointed out that There must inevitably be an element of subjectivity in sampling procedure because the boundary within which a set of samples is taken are fixed by the ecologist on the basis of his judgement of what can be suitably described as one unit for the purpose in hand. Parts of an area can be sample separately if there is doubt as to its homogeneity. A choice has to be made between random and systematic sampling. In random sampling an estimate of the mean is available plus the standard error of the mean i.e. the precision of the mean. The use of t tests to compare two sites is available. In systematic sampling there is no indication of precision and no possibility of assessing the significance of its difference from the mean in another area. However systematic sampling is preferred by many workers on the grounds that it is more representative of variations over the area and hence likely to give a better estimate than random samples and that it is easier to carry out I the filed. Bordeau (153) in his study on density and basal area of forest trees found any gain in accuracy from systematic sampling to be slight. In random sampling any point within the area has an equal chance of being represented in the sample. Stratified random sampling divides the area into blocks taking the same number of samples from each block using random co-ordinates. Quenouille (1949) suggested a method of systematic unaligned sampling. The area is dived into blocks as shown in the diagram 2 below. Keep the x co-ordinate fixed and randomly choose y in a row. Repeat for the other rows with different xs. Smartt et al (1974) found the accuracy increases in the order random, systematic stratified random and stratified unaligned systematic sampling. Whatever method is chosen one important criterion must be borne in mind. An appropriate scale must be chosen for the co-ordinate axes. If too coarse a scale is used so that only a limited number of possible positions are available the system degenerates into a random sub-set of points on a very limited grid. This implies the same disadvantage of possible bias in any one set of samples as systematic sampling. On the hand the smaller the quadrat the greater the chance of significant edge effects due to the observer consistently including individuals that ought to be excluded or vice versa. Extremely false conclusions can also be drawn see illustrations below.(diagram 3) On the basis of the above discussion the following decisions have been made: 1. To select for ground vegetation cover the method of quenoiulle (stratified systematic unaligned sampling.). Sophisticated t analysis will not be used on the ground cover data. 2. A quadrat size of 30mx 30m will be used, divisible into 9, 10m x 10m blocks. 3. For tree analysis plotless sampling methods will be chosen avoiding consideration of quadrat design. Choice of Cover measurement. Two schools of thought have emerged on describing and recording vegetation cover that of Domin and that of Braun Blanquet. For convenience a table is shown in the appendix of these scale. However it was thought better for this project to use a system of recording a quadrat base on tenths coverage of the basal layer. As the site area will be 30m x 30m a splitting into 9 blocks each of side 10m seems reasonable. Vegetation will be estimated on a scale of ten. Detailed Plan and Methods. Apparatus. Measuring tape, Light Meter, stakes or markers, chalk, clipboard, prepared data sheets, pencils, map. Preliminary work. 1. Conduct preliminary site survey, to get a feel for the area and to see what can be usefully accomplished. 2. Talk to Range Warden, obtain useful information on human management of the common, and also vitally and respectfully inform him of the intended research and aims and as to where the research will be carried out. 3. Prepare data field sheets for four sites (samples are shown below). For plotless sampling 8 columns are required of length in four quadrants together with associated tree diameters including a key for species identification. For nearest neighbour analysis 9 columns are required for tree no, distances to three nearest neighbours and associated tree diameters. 4. Obtain table of random numbers. Select 3 blocks of 4 single digit numbers (see diagram 3) 5. Obtain an assistant for the recording of data and help in setting stakes, marking trees and in holding the tape. 6. In the field: Select site. Chosen quadrat size is 30m x 30m. This can be paced out and staked in 10m intervals in both x and y dimensions. Adhering to the pre-ordained random numbers in y and fixed numbers in x for each row ,according to systematic sampling method chosen, the ground cover of the vegetation is estimated in tenths. Any notes made on the sheet according to the Braun-Blanquet school of notation. Any new species not recorded on the sheets should be added. The trampling scale score, canopy cover and light readings can be incorporated on the sheet. 7. Select 4 sites in all, under two criteria. Two should be largely unmanaged; two should be largely managed. The word largely implies inherent uncertainty given the relative un-isolation of the common. Show these on the map. 8. For the plotless sampling data start at a sensible point in the site area. In this context sensible refers to a number of criteria. Single plantations can be useful. Mixed plantations can be useful. Note that the site has already been chosen under a range of criteria. Move around the site taking representative readings until 25 sets of trees have been obtained. 9. Under the point quadrat method select the sample point. Mark it clearly. (Put the assistant on it!) Measurement of the distance in paces will be good enough or with the measuring tape (making sure of consistency in method of recording). Record the circumference of that tree at breast height. Try to be consistent in this in view of any vegetation causing difficulty in approach, or awkward geometry of trees. Note the species of each tree using a key system for ease of recording, (see data sheets). 10. For the nearest neighbour method. Choose a starting tree. Measure its circumference. Then measure distance to its nearest neighbour and measure its circumference. Repeat for the three nearest neighbours in total. No need here to record the species. Except in the general notes comment may be made as to the nature of the area. In particular note that the measurement of a particular tree does not preclude that tree from being anothers nearest neighbour. 11. Record all data by the researcher (me) verbally calling out the measurements and the assistant recording them. It is often sensible to have him verify what he has written down to minimise errors of recording. 11. At all times observe a safe procedure but equally as importantly attempt to disrupt the ecosystem as little as possible. This is particularly important at the two sites that are left by the conservators as little managed as possible. Modifications to plan as carried out in the method. 12. A minor modification resulted in the field in that the measuring tape was in fact in imperial units. In the original data sheets circumferences are recorded in inches and some distance measurements. Other distance measurements were recorded in paces. My pace was measured in cms. (about 30cm) In translation to the spreadsheet appropriate conversions were undertaken , i.e. 1 inch =2.54 cm. Examples of data sheets used in the field. Field Data-Sheet: Plotless Sampling. Point Centred Quadrat Method. Sample point no l1 r1 l 2 r2 l 3 r3 l4 r4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Field Data Sheet: Nearest Neighbour Analysis. (Site Designator):- Tree no Circumference (cm) r n1 dn1 r n2 dn2 r n3 dn3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Field Data-Sheet : Base Cover. Site: Ground Cover % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average Leaf Litter Branches/twigs Bare ground Short grass Long grass Soft rush Brambles Holly Tree saplings Ferns gorse Trampling Score The trampling scale index. 1. No impact on vegetation- flower heads present and stems of plant not broken. 2. 2. Vegetation affected-plants are mainly grasses, stems bent 3. 3 1%-25% of topsoil expose-plants very short or cushion form, some damage 4. 26%_50% of topsoil exposed-plants very short or cushion form clear damage. 5. 51%-75% of topsoil exposed-plants very short or cushion form, very clear damage. 6. 76%-100% of topsoil exposed-plants very short or cushion form, severe damage. Results and Discussion. The original results are presented as carried out in the field. These have been copied onto an excel spreadsheet for analysis and converted where appropriate into SI units. Various plots are presented below to illustrate some of the data that has been collected. Four sites were chosen two in relatively open ground, two in more dense plantations. A frequency count of each tree species is recorded below. Site1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Silver Birch 95 Beech 8 Beech 56 Silver Birch 35 Oak 3 Oak 29 Oak 22 Oak 48 Other/holly 2 Silver Birch 60 Silver Birch 17 Beech 6 Beech 0 Other 3 Other 5 Other 7 This summary table provides useful information on the character of the sites. Sites 1 and 2 consist predominately of silver birches, whereas the oaks and beeches dominate sites 3 and 4. However in the denser stands there is still a significant number of silver birches and this may well affect the results. In Sites 3 and 4 however with the greater number of mature oaks and beeches this symbolises that these latter sites have been better able to reach a state of maturity or climax, than those of the former have. Correlation data for Yodas law are summarised in the table below for the four sites. Site no 1 2 3 4 Correlation Coeff. r 0.71 0.81 0.42 0.84 The data have brought one of the surprises of the study. I would have expected the Pearson correlation coefficients to be nearer unity in the mature forests and perhaps not so in the silver birch plantations, implying a direct association between tree spacing and tree diameter for pairs of trees sampled. It is to be noted that the coefficient is highest in the supposedly more mature woodland in site 4, than it is in sites 1 and 2, although these two sites have returned a high value. The small sample covering an extremely small fraction of the area of the common must be borne in mind when analysing all the data in the study. A significance test could have been performed on these correlation coefficients but this will be held over for a further study. Yodas self-thinning rule might well show some correlation because of the influence of tree management. As trees are cut down to make open space or to let other plant species flourish . In the third site a poor correlation has been observe d. Various hypotheses still need to be explored to explain the pattern of results. (i) The sampling was inadequate in terms of numbers sampled. (ii) The measurements were seriously incorrect. (iii) Yodas law does not apply as either man or some earlier catastrophe has thinned the trees below their natural self-thinning level . Yet a correlation appears for another reason. (iv) Yodas law does apply and the results bear this out largely. Whilst accepting that the number sample at each location was low, it is unlikely that gross errors were made in the measurements attention must focus on the third and fourth assumptions . The Common management have more than likely restricted the number of trees especially in areas 1 and 2 to allow a wider access for walkers and in so doing the density of the trees is below that which they could have attained, and yet a correlation between tree diameter and distance still exist but it might not be finding a 3/2 power law but some other relationship.. Indeed in conversation with the park ranger I learned that further thinning work was planned in conjunction with Kingston University at site 2. Conservationists face this dilemma of wanting more species to establish in areas where more light is allowed to penetrate the surface, as against the philosophical wish of other conservationists of leaving things as they are and for areas to develop naturally. In a crowded urban environment such as the conurbation of London it is probably inevitable that the former policy would win out and that areas have to be managed to cope with multiple demands on them. Density calculations. To further refine the notion that man management has affected the area, tree densities have been worked out according to the point quadrat method. A summary table below shows the computation that have been undertaken on the spreadsheet. The units for these densities should be considered as numbers of trees per square metre. Site Number 1 2 3 4 Point transect 0.23 0.12 0.04 0.05 Sites 3 and 4 have been found to have a lower density than sites 1 and 2. This calculation therefore tends to confirm a trend that was already being formulated that the more mature woodland with its older and higher trees has lower densities of individual that the younger silver birches of sites 1 and 2. Silver birches tend to have lower girths ( at least this study has fond that) than mature oaks or beeches and that more can be packed into a given area. Of course it is not just the basal area that determines the thinning density it is also a function of the overhangs and morphology of the higher branches. Interestingly this concept of morphology forms a detailed subject in itself. Plants and trees are different to animals in that they do not have a modular form. Shape can be extremely variable. White has conducted a study into subject principally on silver birches. My photographs of Oaks on Wimbledon common have revealed some very strange specimens indeed. The Ranger gave me an explanation in that he thought the poor drainage of London Clay responsible for their non-upward growth. Many of the oaks on the common had this deformation, whilst others appeared in normal stands. The results have demonstrated that discrimination between sites is possible with calculations of the type used. There are others mentioned in the literature, which could be similarly evaluated in the field in a subsequent study. The author admits to being surprised at the low densities being found. Photographic evidence of some areas would suggest a low value , whereas others would suggest for silver birches a much higher packing fraction. However it again boils down to the number of samples taken and where they are taken for a fuller picture to emerge. Gathering together the remaining calculations: The table below shows the computations for frequenct density and relative dominance. The useful property of the definition of relative dominance is that the weight given to larger trees such as the oaks and beeches more than compensates for their fewer number. It gives a more accurate impression than simple frequency density of the true impact that a tree species has in terms of basal area ,and hence light requirements and competition for resources and so on. One feature from the table is that silver birches are highly dominant in open ground, whilst maintain a fair degree of dominance also in closed ground. Oak only managed first place in one of the sites , Beech also in one. Of course the small sample again and the way the sampling was conducted mitigated against all oak or beech dominance. However this data does provide a pointer that a succession climax is not being reached on Wimbledon Common. Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Frequency Density Oak 0.68 3.42 0.78 2.28 Silver Birch 21.65 7.08 0.60 1.67 Beech 0.46 0.94 1.99 0.29 Other 0 0.35 0.17 0.33 Relative Dominance Oak 0.06 0.59 0.30 0.77 Silver Birch 0.93 0.26 0.06 0.12 Beech 0.01 0.13 0.62 0.06 Other 0 0.01 0.02 0.06 Thomson, Clark and Evans have attempted to go further and look for evidence of non- random distributions in tree stands. As the procedure they describe is applicable to the measurements I had already collected, with the proviso that my estimate of density will come solely from the point quadrat method and not from nearest neighbour analysis .The appendix 3 summarises data relevant to the calculation and shows two sample calculations. These authors assume that a measure of departure from randomness in a population of plants can be measured. The distributions of distances to neighbours in first order second order and so on are related to the chi-squared distribution. The advantage in using second and third nearest neighbours (Apart from the increase in accuracy of density determination in random populations) is that it should be possible to detect larger scale heterogeneity than by merely using the distance to the nearest neighbour. In the distribution (details not given here) the statistic N x where x n is the mean of the N observed values of x is distributed as chi squared with Nn degrees of freedom. Chi-square gives a simple test of randomness. A probability of Chi 0.95 indicates significant overdispersal of individuals, the distance being smaller than expected, while a probability 0.05 indicates significant underdispersion. From the calculations there is evidence of overdispersal from the nearest neighbour analysis ,because the probability values have turned out to be very low indeed. Ground Vegetation and Trampling Scale Analysis. Turning to the more subjective but nevertheless quantitative data on the ground layer. Averages for each category have been worked out and displayed in the form of a bar chart below. The limited number of samples taken over the limited number of sites obviously limits the description of the vegetation that can be given for the area. However a number of points emerged from the study. Bare non-open ground was founds at site 3 mature beech-oak woodland. The canopy layer in early spring as leaves began to emerge was estimated at 70%. It was thought that the field layer was largely a function of the microclimate of the canopy layer rather than the effect of huge numbers of persons trampling the area. Although a stream existed at the bottom of the glade and the golf course existed at the top on higher level ground, and undoubtedly humans such as myself visited the area. The overall scene of bareness indicated a natural explanantion. Where in any quadrat a footpath exists then inevitably consequences flow from that. In some locations not sampled but viewed generally, wide paths (One is seen on an annotated photograph) exist and at the season of the year ( Early spring) it appears that trampling exposes bare topsoil, as well as the more natural phenomenon of waterlogging. This would indicate severe damage on the trampling scale chosen. Other more minor paths appeared to be in good condition, in that they were overlain with grass albeit is short cushion form. Conservationists again face a dilemma here. Concern is expressed in some quarters that too many visitors destroy that which they have come to see. As evidenced in the phonograph busy paths can prevent any regeneration of plant life. On the other hand paths encourage visitors to keep within narrow restricted ranges and discourage them from straying further. This helps to conserve plant material away from the main paths. I observed on my study how difficult it w as to stray from sidepaths to take measurements in view of the dense underlayer often of bramble, holly and so on. The bar charts clearly bring out differences that do exist between the sites. For example the bramble appears most often in the darker more mature woods. Leaf litter and branches are very noteworthy features of the closed areas.. The small sample has just picked up some of this. Ivy appears to be a feature of some of the darker area. In the more open silver birch stands it was possible without too much difficulty to step between leaf litter, and occasional bramble to measure trees. The fact that more people might stray in this open area is the most likely factor other than man management that denser woodland does not form. One consequence I noticed in some areas where paths had formed, these allowed more light to penetrate the dense woodland canopy which may be beneficial, also the problem arose t of unwanted plant species at the borders of such paths, principally nettles. This voracious species appears to have spread along paths and slightly into interiors in some parts of the common. In the more open areas not always sampled by my quadrate there we extensive area of heather and gorse. Heather existed near site 1 in extensive carpet form. These species seem to relish the more open and well-drained areas of open parkland. Heather is a probably acceptable form of seating for picnickers in the summer months and the rangers choose to leave these areas for recreation at the expense of establishing silver birch saplings. The survey method is therefore capable of reproducing information to ecologists as the field layer tells them in effect the state of the woodland and its canopy layer. Any damage by too much human impact can be assessed using such methods. Conclusion and Evaluation. Necessarily given a short time span for an inidiuval study one cannot hope to solve completely the difficult problem of describing the distribution of flora in an area. The problem of density measurement has been tackled at albeit at a simple level. This problem which entails decision making on sampling and what to sample is the prerequisite for the next fundamental problem that of describing pattern, i.e. what distribution will describe the tree stands. For example. Does a Poisson distribution describe the vegetation? Other interesting possibilities for further research have been revealed by the study, that of the morphology and form of trees. This appears an equally difficult subject. On the more human side of things issues are raised by conservationists on how to manage an area such as Wimbledon Common, quantitative and other more subjective determinants of distribution of vegetation all have their place, when trying for example to estimate the impact of visitors and as to how this should if at all be minimised. .In future work I would want to study more on the methods of selecting the quadrates, and to study the effect on results on quadrat size, which I have briefly seen in the literature. I would want to look further at the methods available and their problems for looking at surface cover on plant vegetation. Sampling frames with pins and so on. Further I would want to correlate my measurements with those of elsewhere on other woodlands and sites and to see how they compare with literature values in other places. This leads on to questions of the physical factors such as soils drainage and microclimate generated by the plants themselves, the factors that determine the distribution as we see it today. In other words the field for study is huge, this individual study has merle scratched the surface. The simple point quadrat method is capable of discriminating between sites in it measurement of density. The nearest neighbour methods can assist in determining if a law similar in form to Yodas law applies as well as to assisting in the statistical analysis on the randomness or otherwise of the distribution of trees in a stand.

Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay Example

Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay Example Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay Development of Quantitative and Qualitative measures of Human Impact on Wimbledon Common Essay A vegetation analysis has been performed at four sites on Wimbledon Common SW19 London, to assess the suitability of quantitative methods for determining human impact on the succession climax. Systematic stratified sampling based on the method of Querouille (1949) has been used Based on 25 sample points per site. A test of Yodas law; C=W? -3/2 has been performed on tree stands, where ? = density of a stand, C= dry weight of matter and w is a constant, by using a correlation test. Log (combined diameters) as the dependent variable (y) and log (distance between pairs) as the independent (x) variable. Three out of four sites gave high values of r, indicating that Yodas law may operate on the sample sites. This is thought to reflect human management of the common over 200 years as well as the mechanism of self-thinning. Using the point quadrat method (Curtis 1949) estimates of density d were obtained as: d= 1 / l 2 where l = ? li / n , where n = sample no and l i the determined lengths from the sample points. This showed discrimination between open and closed sites. A frequency analysis was carried out on this data to find the relative dominance of species X as: Relative dominance of species x= sum of circumferences for that species/ sum of circumferences for all species. Following the procedures of Clark and Evans (1954) these density estimates were tested for normality or a random distribution using the statistic: C=(rn- E(rn))/ (?/?N,) rn and E(rn ) the mean and expectation of the lengths of up to three nearest neighbours. Further following the procedure of Thomson (1956) using a chi squared distribution a further test of randomness was performed on nth nearest neighbours. Basal cover at 36 quadrats was estimated using a tenths scale. Finally a trampling index is proposed that assesses human impact. This has shown discrimination between open and closed sites. However in terms of overall trampling damage little serious impact has been seen outside of the established paths. A conclusion is drawn that both Conservationists and ecologists will be able to use the density measurements and the techniques more generally when planning management schemes for the common as well as the vegetation data and trampling scale to readily assess the impact visitors are having on certain areas of the common. Introduction. Wimbledon Common situated in southwest London is an extensive area of open land subject to multiple recreational use. For example there is a golf course, horse riding designated paths, cycle paths and numerous footpaths, some designated some not. Conservators are appointed to resolve issues of conflict demand use and to take decisions regarding conservation. In the absence of human interference this area would reach climax vegetation. Exactly what this would be depends upon a number of factors. The vegetation could vary on a local scale depending on the closeness to standing water, drainage qualities of the soil as well as the climate overall. The deciduous oak/beech forest is typical of southern England. Diagram 1 shows the proposed stages in this climax that could be appropriate to this area. It is important to realise that the vegetation pattern is never a static phenomenon unchanging once established but a highly dynamic one. Individual trees for example inevitably die or fall; leaving an opportunity gap in the light space that has opened up for other species to establish. This implies a pattern of a mosaic of patches might be become established caused by catastrophes, storms epidemics and diseases and so on. Some species actually inhibit their own re-creation at least initially. Their young saplings do not succeed paving the way for others. Beech is a case in point, thus replacement will be of ash, oak, or birch, but later these trees let the beeches back in. We can conclude that patches of oak, ash or birch are an integral part of the beechwood community. A.S.Watt in a study of beech-woods and found that when they are 60-80 years old the field layer can support wood sorrel but after another 10-20 years these are succeeded by brambles. The field layer may be very sparse with some species of tree for example Beech, dogs mercury, wood sorrell, wood barley grass and wood sanicle have been recorded as common, however if yews are present then not even these plants can gain a foothold. Oak (Quercus robor) has associated on the filed layer dogs mercury, wood sanicle and bluebells. As some areas on Wimbledon Common are left by the conservators to reach their natural climax whereas others are heavily trampled by humans, the opportunity exists to evaluate methods that quantify and qualify the scale of human interference. In this study a dual focus will be attempted. Firstly a look at the trees in their stands1 from the viewpoint of density2, and secondly to look at the ground cover3and assess both qualitatively and quantitatively human impact. Theory. A logical starting point is Yodas self-thinning law. (1963). In this study applied to trees. A derivation of this is given in the appendix. Yoda postulated that that the smallest individuals in a population are the first to die, leaving the larger individuals to gain weight. The law proposed was W= C ? -3/2 , or; in log form log W= log C- 1.5 log ? Where w = dry weight of surviving plants, ? = density of surviving plants C = a constant related to growth class of particular species being studied. The power 3/2 could vary between species as could the constant C. In some 80 species studies the range of C has been found to lie: 3.5 ;= C;= 4.3. A 3/2 power law implies that a change of three log units in mean plant weight corresponds to a change of only 2 log units in mean plant density. Although plants in a dense population become larger with age and as the population decreases due to mortality the law implies that the total plant weight will increase because mean plant weight is increasing faster than density is falling. This phenomenon is known as self-thinning. Incidentally there is enormous biological significance in this. For Farmers three are density limits in which young seedlings of a given species can survive. There are also implications in the filed of conservation of rare species where safe sites need to be found, for the planting of the seeds. One of the Hypotheses under test is that there is a positive direct relationship between the size of each pair of nearest neighbours and their distance apart. In particular self-thinning as opposed to mans imposition of pattern would be expected to comply with Yodas -3/2-power law. Larger individuals benefit from the death of smaller ones. Where regeneration takes place in a woodland gap a large number of seedlings immediately take advantage of the extra light but self-thinning operates during their growth to provide only one mature tree to fill the gap. The successful tree then suppresses new seedling growth. For the analysis of tree stands the method of plotless sampling has been chosen. This method is considered appropriate to forests where there are practical difficulties in delimiting the relatively large quadrats necessary for sampling trees. From the varied procedures mentioned in the literature given for completeness in appendix 2. Three have been chosen and suitably modified to suit the present project. By recording a minimum set of data it is possible to use any of the three methods. 1. Intraspecific and Interspecific crowding. Involves plotting the relationship between the log o combined diameters of each tree and that of its nearest neighbour against the log of the distance between them. This can be done for (i) all pairs of the same species (ii) all pairs of mixed species (iii) Combined data. A correlation coefficient is calculated where x represents the log of combined diameter and y the log of the distance of the nearest neighbours. Point Centred Quadrat method. A Point is established at random in the study area. Four quadrats around the point are marked. The distances from the point to the nearest tree in each quadrant are measured. Simultaneously through symbols such as triangles and squares the species type could be noted. p p could represent silver birch could represent oak could represent beech. p p The density of all trees in the study area is readily estimated as he average of all n length measurements. l = ? li /n. The overall tree density D= 1/ l 2 The frequency of each tree species encountered is obtained as a proportion of the total number of distance measurements made. fj = n j /n j= 1,2s, s is the total number of species, n j is the number of recorded distances to species j. From this the Density of species j: D j =f j D Adding to the data- sheet a record of the circumference of the tree at breast height (approx. 1.5m) we can use the following definitions in the project: Relative Dominance of Species X = Sum of circumferences for all species X /(sum of circumferences for all species) * 100 Relative frequency of species X = frequency of species X */ 100 (Sum of frequency values of all species) Relative density of species X = density of species X/(total density of all species) *100 Nearest neighbour methods. Morsita (1957) has suggested a type 3 estimator ( involving third nearest neighbours and above) applicable to certain type of non-random distribution. This might prove useful in our situation where Wimbledon Common is managed to a great extent in terms of tree density and so on. The distance r to the nth nearest neighbour n;= 3 in each of k sectors at N points is measured. In view of the greater number of sampling points required, a simpler scheme needs to be found here. D1 = 1/pi (n-1)/N ( 1/r) The distance from one tree to its three nearest neighbours will be obtained, and following a procedure of Clark and Evans (1954) test will be conducted on the randomness or otherwise of the distribution of distances. The estimate for density m0 will come from the point quadrat method. Choice of Sampling Procedure and Quadrats. Cochran in 1963 pointed out that There must inevitably be an element of subjectivity in sampling procedure because the boundary within which a set of samples is taken are fixed by the ecologist on the basis of his judgement of what can be suitably described as one unit for the purpose in hand. Parts of an area can be sample separately if there is doubt as to its homogeneity. A choice has to be made between random and systematic sampling. In random sampling an estimate of the mean is available plus the standard error of the mean i.e. the precision of the mean. The use of t tests to compare two sites is available. In systematic sampling there is no indication of precision and no possibility of assessing the significance of its difference from the mean in another area. However systematic sampling is preferred by many workers on the grounds that it is more representative of variations over the area and hence likely to give a better estimate than random samples and that it is easier to carry out I the filed. Bordeau (153) in his study on density and basal area of forest trees found any gain in accuracy from systematic sampling to be slight. In random sampling any point within the area has an equal chance of being represented in the sample. Stratified random sampling divides the area into blocks taking the same number of samples from each block using random co-ordinates. Quenouille (1949) suggested a method of systematic unaligned sampling. The area is dived into blocks as shown in the diagram 2 below. Keep the x co-ordinate fixed and randomly choose y in a row. Repeat for the other rows with different xs. Smartt et al (1974) found the accuracy increases in the order random, systematic stratified random and stratified unaligned systematic sampling. Whatever method is chosen one important criterion must be borne in mind. An appropriate scale must be chosen for the co-ordinate axes. If too coarse a scale is used so that only a limited number of possible positions are available the system degenerates into a random sub-set of points on a very limited grid. This implies the same disadvantage of possible bias in any one set of samples as systematic sampling. On the hand the smaller the quadrat the greater the chance of significant edge effects due to the observer consistently including individuals that ought to be excluded or vice versa. Extremely false conclusions can also be drawn see illustrations below.(diagram 3) On the basis of the above discussion the following decisions have been made: 1. To select for ground vegetation cover the method of quenoiulle (stratified systematic unaligned sampling.). Sophisticated t analysis will not be used on the ground cover data. 2. A quadrat size of 30mx 30m will be used, divisible into 9, 10m x 10m blocks. 3. For tree analysis plotless sampling methods will be chosen avoiding consideration of quadrat design. Choice of Cover measurement. Two schools of thought have emerged on describing and recording vegetation cover that of Domin and that of Braun Blanquet. For convenience a table is shown in the appendix of these scale. However it was thought better for this project to use a system of recording a quadrat base on tenths coverage of the basal layer. As the site area will be 30m x 30m a splitting into 9 blocks each of side 10m seems reasonable. Vegetation will be estimated on a scale of ten. Detailed Plan and Methods. Apparatus. Measuring tape, Light Meter, stakes or markers, chalk, clipboard, prepared data sheets, pencils, map. Preliminary work. 1. Conduct preliminary site survey, to get a feel for the area and to see what can be usefully accomplished. 2. Talk to Range Warden, obtain useful information on human management of the common, and also vitally and respectfully inform him of the intended research and aims and as to where the research will be carried out. 3. Prepare data field sheets for four sites (samples are shown below). For plotless sampling 8 columns are required of length in four quadrants together with associated tree diameters including a key for species identification. For nearest neighbour analysis 9 columns are required for tree no, distances to three nearest neighbours and associated tree diameters. 4. Obtain table of random numbers. Select 3 blocks of 4 single digit numbers (see diagram 3) 5. Obtain an assistant for the recording of data and help in setting stakes, marking trees and in holding the tape. 6. In the field: Select site. Chosen quadrat size is 30m x 30m. This can be paced out and staked in 10m intervals in both x and y dimensions. Adhering to the pre-ordained random numbers in y and fixed numbers in x for each row ,according to systematic sampling method chosen, the ground cover of the vegetation is estimated in tenths. Any notes made on the sheet according to the Braun-Blanquet school of notation. Any new species not recorded on the sheets should be added. The trampling scale score, canopy cover and light readings can be incorporated on the sheet. 7. Select 4 sites in all, under two criteria. Two should be largely unmanaged; two should be largely managed. The word largely implies inherent uncertainty given the relative un-isolation of the common. Show these on the map. 8. For the plotless sampling data start at a sensible point in the site area. In this context sensible refers to a number of criteria. Single plantations can be useful. Mixed plantations can be useful. Note that the site has already been chosen under a range of criteria. Move around the site taking representative readings until 25 sets of trees have been obtained. 9. Under the point quadrat method select the sample point. Mark it clearly. (Put the assistant on it!) Measurement of the distance in paces will be good enough or with the measuring tape (making sure of consistency in method of recording). Record the circumference of that tree at breast height. Try to be consistent in this in view of any vegetation causing difficulty in approach, or awkward geometry of trees. Note the species of each tree using a key system for ease of recording, (see data sheets). 10. For the nearest neighbour method. Choose a starting tree. Measure its circumference. Then measure distance to its nearest neighbour and measure its circumference. Repeat for the three nearest neighbours in total. No need here to record the species. Except in the general notes comment may be made as to the nature of the area. In particular note that the measurement of a particular tree does not preclude that tree from being anothers nearest neighbour. 11. Record all data by the researcher (me) verbally calling out the measurements and the assistant recording them. It is often sensible to have him verify what he has written down to minimise errors of recording. 11. At all times observe a safe procedure but equally as importantly attempt to disrupt the ecosystem as little as possible. This is particularly important at the two sites that are left by the conservators as little managed as possible. Modifications to plan as carried out in the method. 12. A minor modification resulted in the field in that the measuring tape was in fact in imperial units. In the original data sheets circumferences are recorded in inches and some distance measurements. Other distance measurements were recorded in paces. My pace was measured in cms. (about 30cm) In translation to the spreadsheet appropriate conversions were undertaken , i.e. 1 inch =2.54 cm. Examples of data sheets used in the field. Field Data-Sheet: Plotless Sampling. Point Centred Quadrat Method. Sample point no l1 r1 l 2 r2 l 3 r3 l4 r4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Field Data Sheet: Nearest Neighbour Analysis. (Site Designator):- Tree no Circumference (cm) r n1 dn1 r n2 dn2 r n3 dn3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Field Data-Sheet : Base Cover. Site: Ground Cover % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average Leaf Litter Branches/twigs Bare ground Short grass Long grass Soft rush Brambles Holly Tree saplings Ferns gorse Trampling Score The trampling scale index. 1. No impact on vegetation- flower heads present and stems of plant not broken. 2. 2. Vegetation affected-plants are mainly grasses, stems bent 3. 3 1%-25% of topsoil expose-plants very short or cushion form, some damage 4. 26%_50% of topsoil exposed-plants very short or cushion form clear damage. 5. 51%-75% of topsoil exposed-plants very short or cushion form, very clear damage. 6. 76%-100% of topsoil exposed-plants very short or cushion form, severe damage. Results and Discussion. The original results are presented as carried out in the field. These have been copied onto an excel spreadsheet for analysis and converted where appropriate into SI units. Various plots are presented below to illustrate some of the data that has been collected. Four sites were chosen two in relatively open ground, two in more dense plantations. A frequency count of each tree species is recorded below. Site1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Silver Birch 95 Beech 8 Beech 56 Silver Birch 35 Oak 3 Oak 29 Oak 22 Oak 48 Other/holly 2 Silver Birch 60 Silver Birch 17 Beech 6 Beech 0 Other 3 Other 5 Other 7 This summary table provides useful information on the character of the sites. Sites 1 and 2 consist predominately of silver birches, whereas the oaks and beeches dominate sites 3 and 4. However in the denser stands there is still a significant number of silver birches and this may well affect the results. In Sites 3 and 4 however with the greater number of mature oaks and beeches this symbolises that these latter sites have been better able to reach a state of maturity or climax, than those of the former have. Correlation data for Yodas law are summarised in the table below for the four sites. Site no 1 2 3 4 Correlation Coeff. r 0.71 0.81 0.42 0.84 The data have brought one of the surprises of the study. I would have expected the Pearson correlation coefficients to be nearer unity in the mature forests and perhaps not so in the silver birch plantations, implying a direct association between tree spacing and tree diameter for pairs of trees sampled. It is to be noted that the coefficient is highest in the supposedly more mature woodland in site 4, than it is in sites 1 and 2, although these two sites have returned a high value. The small sample covering an extremely small fraction of the area of the common must be borne in mind when analysing all the data in the study. A significance test could have been performed on these correlation coefficients but this will be held over for a further study. Yodas self-thinning rule might well show some correlation because of the influence of tree management. As trees are cut down to make open space or to let other plant species flourish . In the third site a poor correlation has been observe d. Various hypotheses still need to be explored to explain the pattern of results. (i) The sampling was inadequate in terms of numbers sampled. (ii) The measurements were seriously incorrect. (iii) Yodas law does not apply as either man or some earlier catastrophe has thinned the trees below their natural self-thinning level . Yet a correlation appears for another reason. (iv) Yodas law does apply and the results bear this out largely. Whilst accepting that the number sample at each location was low, it is unlikely that gross errors were made in the measurements attention must focus on the third and fourth assumptions . The Common management have more than likely restricted the number of trees especially in areas 1 and 2 to allow a wider access for walkers and in so doing the density of the trees is below that which they could have attained, and yet a correlation between tree diameter and distance still exist but it might not be finding a 3/2 power law but some other relationship.. Indeed in conversation with the park ranger I learned that further thinning work was planned in conjunction with Kingston University at site 2. Conservationists face this dilemma of wanting more species to establish in areas where more light is allowed to penetrate the surface, as against the philosophical wish of other conservationists of leaving things as they are and for areas to develop naturally. In a crowded urban environment such as the conurbation of London it is probably inevitable that the former policy would win out and that areas have to be managed to cope with multiple demands on them. Density calculations. To further refine the notion that man management has affected the area, tree densities have been worked out according to the point quadrat method. A summary table below shows the computation that have been undertaken on the spreadsheet. The units for these densities should be considered as numbers of trees per square metre. Site Number 1 2 3 4 Point transect 0.23 0.12 0.04 0.05 Sites 3 and 4 have been found to have a lower density than sites 1 and 2. This calculation therefore tends to confirm a trend that was already being formulated that the more mature woodland with its older and higher trees has lower densities of individual that the younger silver birches of sites 1 and 2. Silver birches tend to have lower girths ( at least this study has fond that) than mature oaks or beeches and that more can be packed into a given area. Of course it is not just the basal area that determines the thinning density it is also a function of the overhangs and morphology of the higher branches. Interestingly this concept of morphology forms a detailed subject in itself. Plants and trees are different to animals in that they do not have a modular form. Shape can be extremely variable. White has conducted a study into subject principally on silver birches. My photographs of Oaks on Wimbledon common have revealed some very strange specimens indeed. The Ranger gave me an explanation in that he thought the poor drainage of London Clay responsible for their non-upward growth. Many of the oaks on the common had this deformation, whilst others appeared in normal stands. The results have demonstrated that discrimination between sites is possible with calculations of the type used. There are others mentioned in the literature, which could be similarly evaluated in the field in a subsequent study. The author admits to being surprised at the low densities being found. Photographic evidence of some areas would suggest a low value , whereas others would suggest for silver birches a much higher packing fraction. However it again boils down to the number of samples taken and where they are taken for a fuller picture to emerge. Gathering together the remaining calculations: The table below shows the computations for frequenct density and relative dominance. The useful property of the definition of relative dominance is that the weight given to larger trees such as the oaks and beeches more than compensates for their fewer number. It gives a more accurate impression than simple frequency density of the true impact that a tree species has in terms of basal area ,and hence light requirements and competition for resources and so on. One feature from the table is that silver birches are highly dominant in open ground, whilst maintain a fair degree of dominance also in closed ground. Oak only managed first place in one of the sites , Beech also in one. Of course the small sample again and the way the sampling was conducted mitigated against all oak or beech dominance. However this data does provide a pointer that a succession climax is not being reached on Wimbledon Common. Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Frequency Density Oak 0.68 3.42 0.78 2.28 Silver Birch 21.65 7.08 0.60 1.67 Beech 0.46 0.94 1.99 0.29 Other 0 0.35 0.17 0.33 Relative Dominance Oak 0.06 0.59 0.30 0.77 Silver Birch 0.93 0.26 0.06 0.12 Beech 0.01 0.13 0.62 0.06 Other 0 0.01 0.02 0.06 Thomson, Clark and Evans have attempted to go further and look for evidence of non- random distributions in tree stands. As the procedure they describe is applicable to the measurements I had already collected, with the proviso that my estimate of density will come solely from the point quadrat method and not from nearest neighbour analysis .The appendix 3 summarises data relevant to the calculation and shows two sample calculations. These authors assume that a measure of departure from randomness in a population of plants can be measured. The distributions of distances to neighbours in first order second order and so on are related to the chi-squared distribution. The advantage in using second and third nearest neighbours (Apart from the increase in accuracy of density determination in random populations) is that it should be possible to detect larger scale heterogeneity than by merely using the distance to the nearest neighbour. In the distribution (details not given here) the statistic N x where x n is the mean of the N observed values of x is distributed as chi squared with Nn degrees of freedom. Chi-square gives a simple test of randomness. A probability of Chi 0.95 indicates significant overdispersal of individuals, the distance being smaller than expected, while a probability 0.05 indicates significant underdispersion. From the calculations there is evidence of overdispersal from the nearest neighbour analysis ,because the probability values have turned out to be very low indeed. Ground Vegetation and Trampling Scale Analysis. Turning to the more subjective but nevertheless quantitative data on the ground layer. Averages for each category have been worked out and displayed in the form of a bar chart below. The limited number of samples taken over the limited number of sites obviously limits the description of the vegetation that can be given for the area. However a number of points emerged from the study. Bare non-open ground was founds at site 3 mature beech-oak woodland. The canopy layer in early spring as leaves began to emerge was estimated at 70%. It was thought that the field layer was largely a function of the microclimate of the canopy layer rather than the effect of huge numbers of persons trampling the area. Although a stream existed at the bottom of the glade and the golf course existed at the top on higher level ground, and undoubtedly humans such as myself visited the area. The overall scene of bareness indicated a natural explanantion. Where in any quadrat a footpath exists then inevitably consequences flow from that. In some locations not sampled but viewed generally, wide paths (One is seen on an annotated photograph) exist and at the season of the year ( Early spring) it appears that trampling exposes bare topsoil, as well as the more natural phenomenon of waterlogging. This would indicate severe damage on the trampling scale chosen. Other more minor paths appeared to be in good condition, in that they were overlain with grass albeit is short cushion form. Conservationists again face a dilemma here. Concern is expressed in some quarters that too many visitors destroy that which they have come to see. As evidenced in the phonograph busy paths can prevent any regeneration of plant life. On the other hand paths encourage visitors to keep within narrow restricted ranges and discourage them from straying further. This helps to conserve plant material away from the main paths. I observed on my study how difficult it w as to stray from sidepaths to take measurements in view of the dense underlayer often of bramble, holly and so on. The bar charts clearly bring out differences that do exist between the sites. For example the bramble appears most often in the darker more mature woods. Leaf litter and branches are very noteworthy features of the closed areas.. The small sample has just picked up some of this. Ivy appears to be a feature of some of the darker area. In the more open silver birch stands it was possible without too much difficulty to step between leaf litter, and occasional bramble to measure trees. The fact that more people might stray in this open area is the most likely factor other than man management that denser woodland does not form. One consequence I noticed in some areas where paths had formed, these allowed more light to penetrate the dense woodland canopy which may be beneficial, also the problem arose t of unwanted plant species at the borders of such paths, principally nettles. This voracious species appears to have spread along paths and slightly into interiors in some parts of the common. In the more open areas not always sampled by my quadrate there we extensive area of heather and gorse. Heather existed near site 1 in extensive carpet form. These species seem to relish the more open and well-drained areas of open parkland. Heather is a probably acceptable form of seating for picnickers in the summer months and the rangers choose to leave these areas for recreation at the expense of establishing silver birch saplings. The survey method is therefore capable of reproducing information to ecologists as the field layer tells them in effect the state of the woodland and its canopy layer. Any damage by too much human impact can be assessed using such methods. Conclusion and Evaluation. Necessarily given a short time span for an inidiuval study one cannot hope to solve completely the difficult problem of describing the distribution of flora in an area. The problem of density measurement has been tackled at albeit at a simple level. This problem which entails decision making on sampling and what to sample is the prerequisite for the next fundamental problem that of describing pattern, i.e. what distribution will describe the tree stands. For example. Does a Poisson distribution describe the vegetation? Other interesting possibilities for further research have been revealed by the study, that of the morphology and form of trees. This appears an equally difficult subject. On the more human side of things issues are raised by conservationists on how to manage an area such as Wimbledon Common, quantitative and other more subjective determinants of distribution of vegetation all have their place, when trying for example to estimate the impact of visitors and as to how this should if at all be minimised. .In future work I would want to study more on the methods of selecting the quadrates, and to study the effect on results on quadrat size, which I have briefly seen in the literature. I would want to look further at the methods available and their problems for looking at surface cover on plant vegetation. Sampling frames with pins and so on. Further I would want to correlate my measurements with those of elsewhere on other woodlands and sites and to see how they compare with literature values in other places. This leads on to questions of the physical factors such as soils drainage and microclimate generated by the plants themselves, the factors that determine the distribution as we see it today. In other words the field for study is huge, this individual study has merle scratched the surface. The simple point quadrat method is capable of discriminating between sites in it measurement of density. The nearest neighbour methods can assist in determining if a law similar in form to Yodas law applies as well as to assisting in the statistical analysis on the randomness or otherwise of the distribution of trees in a stand.